WHAT DO THE
EVENTS TELL US?
Let us now consider the actual historical background. In Makkah, the Quraysh tribe (descendants of ‘Abd Manaf) had two main branches—Banu Hashim and Banu Umayyah. A long-standing family rivalry had existed between them since the pre-Islamic period. When the Prophet was born into the Hashimite branch, only one man from within—Abu Lahab (‘Abd al-‘Uzza)—became his enemy. But the Umayyad family, as a whole, turned against him. Their opposition, however, did not succeed. After the conquest of Makkah (8 AH), the Umayyads, like other Arab tribes, entered Islam. During the Prophet’s lifetime and later under the Rashidun Caliphs, capable members of the Umayyad clan were given important positions in the Islamic state. The third caliph, ‘Uthman ibn ‘Affan, who belonged to the Umayyad family, ruled between 24–35 AH. Under his rule, the Umayyads gained considerable influence. After him, when ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib was chosen as caliph—the first from the Hashimite family—the Umayyads’ old rivalry came alive again. The issue of avenging Uthman’s assassination strengthened their position, and they refused to pledge allegiance to the fourth Caliph. Ali’s entire caliphate (35–40 AH) was marked by civil wars, until he was assassinated by a fanatical Muslim.
After ‘Ali, allegiance was given to his son Hasan ibn ‘Ali. At that time, only Iraq and Khurasan (Iran) recognized Hasan’s rule, while other regions—Yemen, Hijaz, Syria, Palestine, Egypt—were under Mu‘awiyah ibn Abi Sufyan of the Umayyads. He had not accepted ‘Ali’s authority before, and now he refused Hasan’s as well. By Rabi‘ al-Awwal 41 AH, the situation had reached a critical point: on one side, Imam Hasan had more than forty thousand armed supporters ready to fight to the death; on the other, Mu‘awiyah had sixty thousand soldiers prepared for battle. Imam Hasan reflected that during his father’s five-year rule, Muslims had been killing one another with their own swords. If he insisted on holding onto the caliphate, this bloodshed would only continue indefinitely. Although Hasan was the rightful caliph and the legitimate ruler of the Muslim territories, he realized that the opposing side was unwilling to withdraw. He therefore withdrew from the conflict himself and handed the caliphate over to Mu‘awiyah.
For the next twenty years (41–60 AH), peace followed. Instead of fighting each other, Muslim forces turned their attention to expanding Islam’s frontiers. After Mu‘awiyah’s death (Rajab 60 AH), the question of succession resurfaced. Imam Husayn, who had not agreed with his elder brother’s decision to step down, now refused to accept the rule of Yazid ibn Mu‘awiyah (25–64 AH)—just as Mu‘awiyah had earlier refused to accept the caliphate of Husayn’s father, ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib. At this point, Imam Husayn ibn Ali (4–61 AH) enters the historical narrative—the events associated with him being commemorated every year on the 10th of Muharram.
History records that after Yazid took the throne in Damascus, he wrote to his governor in Madinah, Walid ibn ‘Utbah ibn Abi Sufyan, instructing him to take allegiance from the people in Yazid’s name. When Walid gathered the people, Imam Husayn declined to pledge. The next day, he quietly left Madinah with his family and went to Makkah. But even Makkah could not provide him peace. The people there had pledged allegiance to ‘Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr. This situation weighed so heavily on Imam Husayn that he and the members of his family would not offer prayers behind Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr, who was, at that time, practically the ruler of Makkah.
Earlier, the issue of avenging ‘Uthman’s death had already made both Makkah and Madinah hostile environments for ‘Ali. He had therefore left Madinah and settled in Kufa (Iraq). Thus, in 36 AH, the Islamic capital shifted from Madinah to Kufa. After Hasan stepped down in 41 AH, he too left Kufa and returned to Madinah. Regarding the temperament of the Kufans, the Arab poet Farazdaq told Imam Husayn with striking accuracy: “The hearts of the people of Kufa are with you, but their swords will never be drawn for your support.” When Yazid became caliph, the Kufans’ attachment to the Prophet’s family grew stronger, and their devotion intensified. They began writing to Imam Husayn, inviting him to come to Kufa. They began sending letters to Imam Husayn, urging him to come to Kufa, assuring him that they would pledge allegiance to him. Nearly one hundred and fifty such letters reached him in Makkah.
Imam Hasan clearly understood the delicacy of the situation. During his last days, he advised his younger brother Husain: “Never be deceived by the promises of the people of Kufa. I have realized that Prophethood and Caliphate cannot both remain within our family. For this reason, it would be better for you to stay silent in this matter.” However, being courageous and resolute by nature, Imam Husain could not agree to such advice. He decided to go to Kufa. He called his cousin, Muslim ibn Aqeel ibn Abi Talib, and said: “You should go to Kufa first and take people’s pledge of allegiance on my behalf. Soon I will come myself.”
Muslim ibn Aqeel was not in favor of this plan, but at Imam Husain’s insistence, he set out for Kufa. When he arrived there as Husain’s representative, many people welcomed him. It is said that nearly 18,000 people pledged allegiance to Imam Husain through Muslim ibn Aqeel, who was acting as his representative. When Yazid heard of this, he appointed Ubaydullah ibn Ziyad to suppress the people of Kufa. Ubaydullah came from Basra to Kufa, gathered the people, and warned them harshly. He then had Muslim ibn Aqeel and his Kufan host, Hani ibn Urwah, taken to the roof of his palace and executed. Their severed heads and bloodstained bodies were cast down from the roof before the assembled people. This was a grim warning that anyone intending to support Imam Husain should first consider the fate that awaited them. Terrified by this spectacle, the people fell silent and returned to their homes.
Meanwhile, in Makkah, Imam Husain was unaware of all that had happened and was preparing to leave for Kufa. Abdullah ibn Umar, Abdullah ibn Abbas, Amr ibn Saad ibn al-Aas, Abd al-Rahman ibn Harith, and other prominent figures of Makkah strongly urged him not to proceed. Abdullah ibn Zubair said: “Instead of going to Kufa, accept leadership here in Makkah. If you extend your hand, I will be the first to pledge allegiance to you.” But Husain refused. Abdullah ibn Ja’far ibn Abi Talib wrote from Madinah, urging him not to go, but he did not listen. He even rejected Abdullah ibn Abbas’s final advice: that he should at least leave the women and children behind in Makkah, or delay his journey until after Hajj, which was only a few days away.
When Imam Husain set out for Kufa in the first week of Dhu al-Hijjah, 60 AH, he met Abdullah ibn Muti on the way. Abdullah said to him, “I implore you by God to return to Makkah. If you attempt to wrest the caliphate from the Umayyads, they will certainly kill you. After that, they will become emboldened to kill every Hashimite, every Arab, and every Muslim.” However, nothing could deter Imam Husain’s courageous and resolute nature. Yazid ibn Muawiya and his governor of Iraq, Ubaydullah ibn Ziyad, were receiving constant reports. They stationed six thousand soldiers at different locations to prevent Husain from entering Kufa. At first, a few hundred men accompanied him, but as soon as they learned of Yazid’s forces, they began to leave. By the time Husain’s caravan reached Karbala, only seventy-two remained, mostly his own family and clan.
At last, Imam Husain realized the reality of the situation. The killing of Muslim ibn Aqeel, the betrayal of the Kufans, and Yazid’s massive army against his small caravan—all of this left no chance of success. He knew that confrontation could only mean death. Husain was a noble and courageous man; neither war nor death frightened him. But he could not stop the feelings of compassion he felt for his companions, women, and children. History tells us that in the end, he was ready to seek a peaceful settlement with Yazid. He presented three proposals to Ubaydullah ibn Ziyad, Yazid’s governor:
1. I will return to Makkah and spend my life there quietly in worship.
2. Allow me to go to the frontier, where I will fight the unbelievers until I am martyred.
3. “I may place my hand in Yazid’s hand and pledge allegiance to him.” (Imma an ada‘a yadi fi yadi Yazid; Tarikh al-Tabari, Vol. 5, p. 413)
The men in Yazid’s army were greatly pleased by this change in Imam Husain’s position. Although the two sides stood opposed to each other on the field of Karbala, their respect for the Prophet’s grandson was such that people from both sides performed their prayers together, with Imam Husain often leading them in prayer. When Ubaydullah ibn Ziyad received Husain’s proposals, he too was pleased, thinking the matter would end without bloodshed and that Husain would pledge allegiance to Yazid. But one of his advisors, Shimr ibn Dhi’l-Jawshan, a man of harsh and cruel character, persuaded him otherwise. He argued that such an opportunity to end Husain’s cause forever would never come again. Acting on this advice, Ibn Ziyad ordered all escape routes blocked. Whichever direction Husain tried to turn, an army stood in his way.
On the 10th of Muharram, 61 AH, Yazid’s forces began their attack. Husain’s companions fought bravely, but all were killed. In the end, only Husain remained, apart from the women and children. The soldiers hesitated to strike him, turning aside when it was their turn. Finally, Shimr ibn Dhi’l-Jawshan—the same man who had incited the governor—advanced with a group of men and attacked the brave Imam, ending his life. To add to the tragedy, Shimr was Husain’s maternal uncle, and Amr ibn Sa’d—the man who had fired the first arrow at Husain’s caravan—was also his uncle.
The account of Imam Husain’s martyrdom found in al-Tabari and other early histories is very different from the emotional versions recited by poets and preachers. The fact is that Imam Husain’s political action was, to a large extent, prompted by his bold nature. The Companions of the Prophet who were alive at the time opposed his decision. The elders of Makkah and Madinah warned him, and even his own relatives disagreed with him. Yet his determined spirit could not be restrained. However, in the final days, he came to realize the seriousness of the matter, reaching the same conclusion that his elder brother, Imam Hasan, had reached with foresight twenty years earlier. Yazid ibn Muawiya was in Damascus, his capital. If he had personally been in Karbala with his army, and if there had been direct conversation between him and Husain, there is little doubt that he would have accepted Husain’s final proposal. Yazid was an enemy of Husain as a political rival—but once Husain had pledged allegiance, he would have become for Yazid the “grandson of the Prophet.” Yazid would have honored him and sent him safely back to his homeland. But Yazid only learned of Husain’s conciliatory offer after Husain’s head had already been severed from his body.
